Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

CLOTHING

Despite the several hundred biblical references to clothing, translators face difficulties rendering accurately many of the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek words for specific garments. As texts took shape over some 1000 years words took on new meanings, cloth-making technology improved, and fashions changed. Biblical accounts are set in different geographic areas, with varying climates, resources, nationalities, and cultures. Dress styles can differ according to occupation (e.g., Zech. 13:4), status (e.g., 2 Sam. 13:18) and wealth (e.g., Jas. 2:2-3), and can be influenced by styles from other cultures (e.g., 2 Macc. 4:12). The complexity translators face becomes apparent when one compares translations; e.g., in Gen. 37:3, 23, 32 Joseph’s kĕṯōneṯ passîm: “tunic of many colors” (NKJV), “long robe with sleeves” (NRSV, REB), “long tunic” (NAB), “decorated tunic” (NJB), “ornamented tunic” (NJPSV), “richly ornamented robe” (NIV).

No clothing from OT times has been recovered in Palestine. However some clothing from the end of the NT period has survived. Cloth fragments and sandals from Masada and Qumran date to 70-73 c.e. Entire tunics, mantles, and sandals from the nearby Cave of Letters date to Bar Kokhba’s revolt (135).

Pictures and statues from surrounding peoples are useful. An Egyptian wall painting at Beni Hasan from Khnum-hotep III’s tomb (ca. 1890 b.c.e., contemporaneous with the biblical patriarchs) shows two Egyptian officials meeting a caravan of eastern men, women, and children (ANEP, 3). The Black Obelisk of Assyrian King Shalmaneser III (858-824) depicts Israel’s King Jehu (2 Kgs. 9–10) and 13 attendants bringing tribute (ANEP, 351-55). Wall carvings from Nineveh depicting the siege of Lachish (SE of Jerusalem) in 701 show Assyrian and Judean soldiers, and men, women, and children from the city (ANEP, 371-73).

Heb. begeḏ is used as a collective term for “clothing” (Lev. 11:25) or generically for any garment (13:47). It is used of the attire of a king and his servants (2 Sam. 13:31), priestly vestments (Exod. 28:2), and women’s clothing (Gen. 38:14). Gk. himátion functions similarly (Mark 2:21 par.). Clothing included mantles (alternately translated “coat,” “cloak,” “robe”), tunics (“robe”), sashes (“belt,” “apron,” “loincloth,” “waistcloth”), headdresses (“turban,” “veil,” “crown”), and sandals (“shoes”).

Gen. 3:7 is the first reference to clothing. The man and woman stitch fig leaves to make “waistcloths” (Heb. ḥăgōrâ ). In 2 Sam. 18:11; 1 Kgs. 2:5 ḥăgōrâ describes soldiers’ garb. This shirtlike garment was wrapped around the waist and covered the thighs. A “loincloth” (Heb. ʾēzôr; Gk. zṓnē) was similar (Isa. 5:27; Ezek. 23:15). Either could be folded into a beltlike sash.

The fig-leaf waistcloths contrast with the “skin tunics” with which God “clothed” the man and woman (Gen. 3:21). The “tunic” (Heb. kuttōnem; Gk. chitṓn), a kind of shirt suspended from one or both shoulders, was worn by men (2 Sam. 15:32) and women (Cant. 5:3). A “skin loincloth” was characteristic of Elijah (2 Kgs. 1:8) and John the Baptist (Matt. 3:4 = Mark 1:6). Zech. 13:4 mentions a “garment of hair” worn by prophets; John the Baptist’s clothes were of “camel’s hair.” Heb. 11:37 speaks of biblical saints who traveled “in sheepskins, in goatskins.” Sheepskin tunics were found in the Cave of Letters.

Wool from fleece and linen from flax were Palestinian agricultural products throughout biblical times. There are frequent references to spinning (Prov. 31:19; Luke 12:27), weaving (Isa. 19:9; John 19:23), and embroidery (Exod. 28:39). Different shades of wool dyed with natural hues provided a full palette of colors. In the Beni Hasan painting the visitors’ waistcloths and tunics show multiple colors and patterns, while Egyptians wear white linen waistcloths. Wool garments from the Cave of Letters have brown, tan, red, or yellow hues, with black, blue, and green stripes. Leather, wool, and linen garments might become infested (Lev. 13:47-59).

An outer garment could be worn over a tunic (Ezra 9:3, 5; Ezek. 26:16; Matt. 5:40 = Luke 6:29; John 19:23). Several words (Heb. śimlâ, meḏew, kĕsûṯ, meʿîl, ʾadderem; Gk. ependýtēs, himátion, peribólaion, phainólēs) refer to a rectangular mantle that draped over the shoulders and wrapped around the body. A mantle was essential (Job 31:19). It served as a blanket at night (Exod. 22:27; Deut. 24:12-13) and a means for carrying other items (Exod. 12:34; Ruth 3:15; Hag. 2:12). Mantles were decorated with fringes or tassels (Deut. 22:12; cf. Matt. 23:5; Luke 8:44) with blue or violet thread that reminded the wearer of the commandments (Num. 15:37-41). On the Black Obelisk Jehu and his attendants wear tunics, fringed mantles, and sashes. Yarn tassels awaiting to be attached to garments were found in the Cave of Letters.

The headdress (Heb. pĕʾēr, ṣānîp) was a cloth draped over the head, or wrapped like a turban (Ezek. 24:17; Zech. 3:5). In the Lachish reliefs women leaving the city wear an ankle-long cloth draped over their heads and down their backs. Women sometimes used a veil (ṣāʿîp) to cover their faces (Gen. 24:65; Cant. 4:1, 3). Paul uncompromisingly insisted that Corinthian women cover their hair while praying in community gatherings (1 Cor. 11:4-16).

Sandals (Heb. naʿălāyim; Gk. hypodḗmata, sandália) were common footwear (Deut. 29:5[MT 4]; Mark 1:7; Acts 12:8). In the Ben Hasan painting the men wear sandals or are barefoot, while the women wear shoes. On the Black Obelisk Jehu’s attendants wear pointed shoes.

While biblical authors used the same words for men’s and women’s garments, Deut. 22:5 implies that there were differences. Decorations woven into mantles found in the Cave of Letters may reflect distinctions for men and women. Widows wore identifying clothing (Gen. 38:14; Jdt. 8:5). In Isa. 3:18-24 a detailed poem itemizes garments and ornaments of 8th-century upper-class Jerusalem women, but translations for many items remains very uncertain. Ezek. 16:13-14 metaphorically describes Jerusalem’s clothing as “fine linen, rich fabric, and embroidered cloth,” such as a queen might wear (cf. LXX Esth. 15:1-2; Jdt. 1--:3-4).

Distinctive clothing was associated with the sanctuary and the temple. Young Samuel (1 Sam. 2:18), the priests of Nob (1 Sam. 22:18), and David (2 Sam. 6:14) wore a linen ephod (Heb. ʾēpôḏ bāḏ), a loincloth, while in the sanctuary. Exod. 28, 39 describe Aaron and his sons’ vestments. Priests wore special linen undergarments (miḵnĕsê pištîm) to avoid exposing themselves while ministering. Over these were worn a linen tunic, wool mantle, and an embroidered sash. Priests also wore linen headdresses. The chief priest added a multicolored decorated ephod, jeweled breastpiece, and a gold engraved emblem on his headdress. Later levitical priests may have worn only linen vestments (Ezek. 44:15-19).

Bibliography. L. Bonfante and E. Janunzems, “Clothing and Ornament,” in Civilization of the Mediterranean, ed. M. Grant and R. Kitzinger (New York, 1988), 3:1385-413; Y. Yadin, Bar-Kokhba (New York, 1971); Masada (New York, 1966).

Joseph E. Jensen

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

CLOTHING

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)