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JOHN THE BAPTIST

Jewish religious figure at the time of Jesus, executed by Herod Antipas (4 b.c.e.–39 c.e.).

Sources

The basic sources on John the Baptist are Q, Mark, and Josephus Ant. 18.116-19. Information pertinent to the followers of John is found in the Gospel of John and the source of Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions 1.27-71. The value of the information in Acts, the special Lukan material, the Gospel of Thomas, and the Mandean writings is disputed. The presence of a non-Christian report (Josephus) to complement the Christian accounts means that the availability of sources is comparatively good.

Name

John (presumably Aram./Heb. ḥānān, “God has shown favor”), a name found in the OT, is accompanied in Josephus and Mark by the sobriquet “baptist” (Aram. perhaps eēl, ôḇēʿ, or mabaʿ), which apparently points to the distinctive aspect of John’s activity.

Activity and Location

The most certain aspect of John’s activity is thus that he gave instructions about proper ablution. In this regard, John fits his Jewish environment as it is becoming increasingly known through the Dead Sea Scrolls (e.g., 1QS 3:8-9) and archaeology (miqwāʾô, ritual baths). It is uncertain whether John prescribed repeated ablutions or distinguished himself by promoting a one-time baptism (Josephus remarkably uses the singular).

The placement of John’s activity in the wilderness and at the Jordan River (Mark) stands roughly in accord with the site of his execution according to Josephus (the fortress Machaerus) and with information in the Gospel of John (Bethany across the Jordan and Aenon near Salim). This location is generally accepted and would allow movement across political borders (Judea-Samaria, Perea, Decapolis) and access to natural water (“living water”).

Josephus and Mark 1:5; 11:32 agree that John was enormously popular. There is no compelling reason to question the Gospels’ tradition that John was active generally prior to Jesus’ ministry, though the exact chronological relationship of the two cannot be specified. Josephus relates that some Jews thought that Antipas’ execution of John had been avenged by God through the defeat of his army by Aretas IV, probably in 36 c.e. John’s death accordingly preceded this date and probably belongs in the latter half of Antipas’ reign.

Particularly in view of John’s popularity, the Christian tradition that Jesus was baptized by John (and that John was soon arrested thereafter) is open to historical question. It is not clear that Q described Jesus’ baptism by John. Jesus himself must nevertheless have at least heard about John and doubtless approved of him, perhaps even imitating him in some respects.

Religious Message

The exact contents and scope of John’s message are difficult to determine. Josephus presents John as someone who exhorts to virtue, righteousness among fellow Jews, and reverence toward God. Given the general political and religious climate, there are likely to have been political overtones pertaining to the future of the Jewish people. Whether John used apocalyptic imagery (cf. Q) is uncertain. In any event, Christian tradition has moved John into a much more definite role as precursor of the Messiah and as Elijah.

John’s teaching regarding baptism doubtless involved some discussion of repentance, purity, and forgiveness. Josephus is at pains to deny that the baptism was for forgiveness of sins, while Mark affirms this. Both positions seem to be evolved from an original connection of repentance, baptism, purity, and forgiveness, witnessed also in the writings from Qumran. The controlling idea that forgiveness comes from God will not have been displaced.

The location of John’s activity outside Jerusalem, combined with baptism involving forgiveness, raises the question of to what degree John consciously challenged the Jerusalem priesthood. Increasing evidence for the prevalence of Jewish ritual ablutions renders less likely the thesis that a baptist movement must necessarily have stood in opposition to the temple cult.

Followers

Mark, Q, and John agree in speaking of a special group of “disciples of John.” Remarkably, these writings witness to the continued existence of this distinct group throughout Jesus’ ministry. The kernel of this group undoubtedly goes back to the lifetime of John. A group of John’s adherents seems to have continued on to rival followers of Jesus even after John’s death. Out of the dialogue, Johannine elements such as fasting and baptism might have been introduced into the nascent Christian faith.

John’s disciples evidently believed John to be the Messiah (Recognitions 1.54.8; 1.60.1-2; John 1). After his execution, they seem to have thought John was hidden away by God to return soon (Mark 6:14, 16; 8:28; Recognitions 1.54.8). In all these aspects John’s movement appears to have established a pattern for the early followers of Jesus.

Bibliography. C. H. Kraeling, John the Baptist (New York, 1951); E. F. Lupieri, “John the Baptist in New Testament Traditions and History,” in ANRW II.26,1 (Berlin, 1993), 430-61; C. H. H. Scobie, John the Baptist (Philadelphia, 1964); R. L. Webb, John the Baptizer and Prophet. JSNTSup 62 (Sheffield, 1991); W. Wink, John the Baptist in the Gospel Tradition. SNTSMS 7 (London, 1968).

F. Stanley Jones







Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)

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