Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

PLANTS

At least 128 plant names appear in the OT and NT, a small number when compared with the more than 2780 species which modern botanists have identified in Israel. For convenience, the herbaceous plants described in the Bible are grouped here according to use and/or natural habitats.

Field Crops and Garden Plants

Three important grains mentioned in the Bible are wheat, barley, and millet. Wheat (Triticum aestivum and T. Compositum), one of the oldest cultivated grains in the world, is represented by Heb. ḥiṭṭâ and Gk. sítos áleuron and semídālis. This is the “corn” of Pharaoh’s dream (Gen. 41:5). Heb. kussemeṯ (Exod. 9:32; Isa. 28:25; Ezek. 4:9) probably refers to emmer (Triticum dicoccum). Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is Heb. śĕʿōrâ (Exod. 9:31; Lev. 27:16; Deut. 8:8; Ruth 1:22; 2 Kgs. 4:42) and Gk. krīthḗ (John 6:9; Rev. 6:6). Millet (Panicum miliaceum) or sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), used for porridge and bread, is Heb. dōhan (Ezek. 4:9).

Important biblical pulses include the lentil, chickpea (garbanzo bean), and broad bean. Heb. ʿăḏāšâ (2 Sam. 17:28; 23:11) is associated with the lentil (Lens culinaris), also used for Jacob’s pottage (Gen. 25:34). The chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is Heb. hāmîṣ (Arab. humus; Isa. 30:24). The broad bean (Vicia faba) is Gk. kerátion (Luke 15:16).

Leeks, onions, and garlics were among the Egyptian vegetables the Israelites craved while wandering through the wilderness (Num. 11:5-6). The leek (Heb. ḥāṣîr) is generally identified with Allium kurrat, although some have suggested the fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). The onion (Allium cepa) is Heb. bāṣāl, while the garlic (Allium sativum) is šûm. The cucumbers and melons the Israelites also pined for are Heb. qiššûʾâ (Num. 11:54; Isa. 1:8), probably the muskmelon (Cucumis melo) and the ʾăḇaṭṭîaḥ (Num. 11:5) or watermelon (Citrullus lanatus).

Condiments used by biblical people to spice up their foods included cummin, dill, and mint. Cummin (Cuminum cyminum) is confidently identified with Heb. kammōn (Isa. 28:25, 27) and Gk. kýmīnon (Matt. 23:23). Heb. qeṣaḥ (Isa. 28:25, 27) probably refers to the black cummin (Negella sativa). Manna reminded the Israelites of gaḏ (Exod. 16:31; Num. 11:7), i.e., the coriander seed (Coriander satovum). Dill (Anethum graveolens) is referred to in Matt. 23:23 (Gk. ánēthon), as is mint (Mentha longifolia; Gk. kedyosmon). Rue (Ruta chalepensis) is probably Gk. pḗganon (Luke 11:42). Jesus refers to the seed of a sinapi (Matt. 17:20 par.; Mark 4:31 par.) as an illustration of the power of faith; this plant is the mustard (probably Brassica nigra). The slimy vegetable mentioned in Job 6:6 (ḥallomûṯ) is probably purlane (Portulaca oleracea) or mallow (Malva sylvestris, M. nicaeensis, Alcea setosa). Heb. qinnāmôn (Exod. 30:23; Prov. 7:17; Cant. 4:14) and Gk. kinnámōmon (Rev. 18:13) are confidently identified with cinnamon (Cinnamonoum verum), a spice that was imported into Palestine. Heb. qiddâ (Exod. 30:24; Ezek. 27:19; cf. 45:8[MT 9]) is probably cassia (Cinnamonum cassia), another imported plant that was inferior to true cinnamon.

Two important plants that were used for textiles rather than subsidence were flax and cotton. Heb. pištâ (Exod. 9:21) and Gk. lińon (Matt. 12:20; Rev. 15:6), bý (Luke 16:19), sindōn (Mark 15:46 par.), and othónion (John 19:40; 20:5, 7) are identified with the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum), whose stem fibers are extracted to make fine linen. The seeds are the source for linseed oil. Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum) is Heb. karpas (Esth. 1:6); it was used for the curtains in King Ahasuerus’ banquet hall.

Many plants were used for medicinal purposes. Heb. ṣŏrî (Gen. 37:25; Jer. 8:22) is usually translated as balm, although balm itself is a general term for any healing ointment. Undoubtedly several plants were used in antiquity to create balms. Balms were made from the resin from the lentisk bush (Pistacia lentiscus), the seeds of the Atlantic terebinth (P. Atlantica), ladanum resin from the Turkish rock-rose (Cistus laurifolius), and oil from the fruit of the Jericho balsam (Balanites aegyptiaca). Opobalsamum is derived from the resin of the Balm of Judea (Commiphoroa gileadensis). Heb. nĕḵʾōṯ (Gen. 37:25) is the gum tragacanth extracted from the roots of leguminous plants from the genus Astragalus (A. Gummifer, A. Bethlehemicus). It has been suggested that castor oil, derived from Ricinus communis, may be associated with Heb. qîqāyôn (Jonah 4:6-10).

A number of plants were also used as fragrant incense. Heb. ḥelbĕnâ (Exod. 30:34) is galbanum (Ferula galbaniflua). Heb. nērd (Cant. 1:12; 4:13-14) and Gk. nárdos (Mark 14:3; John 12:3), the spice Mary used to anoint Jesus, are often translated as nard or spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi), although some botanists believe the Hebrew term is probably to be identified with camel grass (Cymbopogon schoenanthus). Heb. karkōm (Cant. 4:14), saffron, comes from the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus) and was used both as incense and a dye. Some have suggested since Heb. qāneh appears in Cant. 1:14, it must have been an aromatic grass which could have been used as incense; if so, sweet flag (Acorus calamus) is probably the best candidate.

Wild Herbs

It is estimated that there are at least 200 palatable grasses and herbs in Palestine. Hebrew words that refer to this broad category of plants include ḥāṣîr and ʿēśeḇ. Heb. mĕrôrîm (Exod. 12:8; Num. 9:11) specifically refer to the “bitter herbs.” Plants included in this category, according to the Mishnah, include lettuce (Lactuca), chicory (Cichorium intybus and C. Pumilum), eryngo (Eryngium creticum), horseradish (Armoracia rusticana), and sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus). Other plants that have been grouped in this category include dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), endive (Cichorium endivia), reichardia (Reichardia tingitana), sorrel (Rumex acetosella), and watercress (Nasturtium officinale).

Waterway Plants

Heb. qāneh and Gk. kálamos (1 Kgs. 14:15; Matt. 27:29) have sometimes been identified with the common reed (Phragmites communis = P. australis), although sweet flag (Acorus calamus) has also been proposed. Heb. ʾagmôn (Isa. 9:14[13]; 58:5) probably covers sedges and rushes and includes the six local species of Scirpus as well as several species of Juncus. Two species of cattail (Typha sp.) are probably included under the class of water plants known in Hebrew as sûp (Exod. 2:3; Isa. 19:6; Jonah 2:5). Papyrus (Cyperus papyrys) is probably to be identified with gōmeh (Exod. 2:3; Isa. 18:2).

Wilderness Plants

Wilderness plants include senna bush, white broom, and shrubby orache. The senna bush (Cassia senna) is probably Heb. sĕneh (Exod. 3:2-4; cf. Arab. sene). The white broom (Retama raetam) has been identified with Heb. rōṯem (1 Kgs. 19:4; Job 30:4). Heb. malûaḥ (Job 30:4) is similar to Arab. mulaḥ, which is identified with several species of Atriplex or orache.

Thorns and Thistles

Because of the relatively dry Mediterranean environment, thorny plants are plentiful in Palestine. More than 70 varieties have been identified by modern botanists while at least 20 Hebrew and Greek terms refer to this category of plants. Those probably indicated include Christ thorn; thorny burnet; bramble; Syrian, holy, and globe thistles; Spanish thistle; golden thistle; nettle, gray nightshade; Syrian acanthus; and spiny zilla.

Matt. 13:24-25 refers to the tares or weeds (Gk. zizánion) that grow among the good plants. The tare is mostly likely the darnel (Lolium temulentum), a noxious weed that routinely invades crops in Palestine. Heb. rōʾš (Hos. 10:4) also refers to a noxious weed, probably the Syrian scabious (Cephalaria syriaca) or the henbane (Hyoscyamus reticulatus). These same species may be what Job had in mind (Job 31:40; Heb. boʾšâ).

Flowers of the Field

It is extremely difficult to identify specific species of flowering plants with Hebrew terms. Three Hebrew terms refer to flowers in a generic sense: peraḥ, ṣîṣ, niṣṣâ. Heb. niṣṣānîm (Cant. 2:12) probably refers collectively to those flowers that are the first to bloom in the spring. This would include anemones (Anemone coronaria L.), tulips (Tulipa montana Lindl.), poppies (Papaver rhoeas L.), and crowfoots (Ranunculus asiaticus). Another group is the “flowers of the field” (Isa. 40:6, 8; 1 Pet. 1:24-25), which probably includes daisies and daisy-like flowers such as the dog chamomile (Anthemis sp.), scarlet crowfoot (Ranunculus asiaticus L.), and crown daisy (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.). Some suggest that the “lily of the field” (Gk. krínon; Matt. 6:28 par.) is the anemone (Anemone coronaria). Several flowers have been identified with Heb. šûšan (1 Kgs. 7:19, 26; Cant. 2:2), including the white lily (Lilium candidum L.), chamomile (Anthrmis noblis, A. tinctoria), narcissus (Narcissus tazetta), sea daffodil (Pancratium maritimum), sternbergia (Sternbergia lutea, S. clusiana), and crowfoot (Ranunculus asiaticus L.). The “rose of Sharon” (Heb. ḥăḇaṣṣeleṯ; Cant. 2:1; Isa. 35:1) likely also refers to this lily, although some have suggested the Phoenician rose (Rosa phoenicia).

Bibliography. M. Zohary, Plants of the Bible (London, 1982).

Randall W. Younker

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

PLANTS

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)