Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

AGRICULTURE

Workers reap and winnow grain (below) while scribes register the harvest (above). Wall painting from
the tomb of Menna, scribe of the fields of the lord of the two lands of Upper and Lower Egypt
(15th century b.c.e.) (Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago)

Along with herding, one of the two main components of Israelite economy. Israelite agriculturalists probably learned their skills from the Canaanites, the former inhabitants of the land. While agriculture was practiced throughout the country, its nature changed depending on particular environmental conditions characteristic of each region. The lack of suitable lands in the hill country was resolved by forest clearing and the introduction of terracing, a method which artificially created leveled areas suitable for the cultivation of field crops and orchards. The scarcity of water in arid zones was met with the practice of runoff farming which utilized catchment of rain waters and their diversion to agricultural plots.

Unlike Egypt or Mesopotamia, irrigation of agricultural plots was not commonly practiced in biblical Israel due to the lack of water sources and the nature of the terrain (cf. Deut. 11:10-11: “For the land which you are crossing over to occupy is a land of hills and valleys, watered by rain from the sky”).

The most common field crops were cereals (dāgān) which included wheat (ḥiṭṭâ), barley (śĕʿōrâ), and millet. Legumes, although cultivated by the Israelite farmer, probably were not as common as cereals since not all species are mentioned in the Bible and most are better known from archaeological samples. Species cultivated in the Israelite period include broad bean (pôl), lentil (ʿăḏāšîm), bitter vetch, chick-pea, pea, and fenugreek. Other field crops included flax (pištâ) and sesame.

An important branch of Israelite agriculture was the growing of fruit trees. The most common was the grapevine (gepen), respectively followed by the olive (zayiṯ), pomegranate (rimmôn), date palm (tāmār), and sycamore (šiqmîm). Other fruit trees include tappûăḥ (possibly quince or apricot), bāḵāʾ (possibly black mulberry), and carob. Other trees cultivated for their fruit were those bearing nuts, which included the almond (šāqēḏ), pistachio (possibly boṭnîm), and walnut (ʾĕgôz).

Not much is known about the cultivation of vegetables, a dietary element which was not highly regarded (Prov. 15:17). However, several biblical references indicate that gardening was practiced in close proximity to the home, in urban areas, and by the nobility (1 Kgs. 21:2; 2 Kgs. 21:18, 26). Only once are vegetables enumerated, when the Israelites in the desert crave meat, fish, and “the cucumbers (qiššuʾîm), the melons (ʾăḇaṭṭiḥîm), the leeks[?] (ḥāṣîr), the onions (bĕṣālîm), and the garlic (šûmîm)” (Num. 11:5). Cucumbers were cultivated in large patches and required guarding against theft (Isa. 1:8) and damage by birds (Jer. 10:5).

One form of gardening was the cultivation of herbs and spices, which included cumin (kammōn), black cumin (qeṣaḥ) and coriander (gaḏ), all of which are mentioned in the Bible.

Agriculture is a seasonal occupation, and all chores are predetermined by the time of year and the prevailing climate. Although several of the agricultural seasons and chores are mentioned in the Bible, the best source for the agricultural cycle is the so-called Gezer Calendar, an inscription discovered at Tell Gezer in 1908. The document opens with “two months of ingathering (of olives)” (mid-August to mid-October) followed by “two months of sowing (cereals)” (mid-October to mid-December) and “two months of late sowing (of legumes and vegetables)” (mid-December to mid-February). This was followed by “a month of hoeing weeds (for hay)” (mid-February to mid-March). Others read this entry as “a month of hoeing flax.” Then come “a month of harvesting barley” (mid-March at the spring equinox to mid-April) and “a month of harvesting (wheat) and measuring (grain)” (mid-April to mid-May; the last word has several suggested readings). The listing ends with “two months of grape harvesting” (mid-May to mid-July) and “a month of (ingathering) summer fruit” (mid-July to mid-August). Analysis of the Gezer Calendar shows that the three pilgrimage festivals (Passover/Pesaḥ, Weeks/Šāḇuʾôṯ, Booths/Sukkôṯ), which started as agricultural celebrations, occur in accordance with its seasonal divisions.

Agricultural chores required special implements. Plowing, which was done for the purpose of sowing, was carried out with a wooden plow (maḥărēšâ) having a metal tip, and drafted by cattle (oxen, cows) or donkeys. This activity took place in the autumn after the first rains. A related tool was the goad (malmāḏ or dārḇān), which had at one end an iron tip set in a wooden shaft for prodding the animals, and a flat, shovel-like butt at the other end for removing the mud off the plow-tip. Other chores were done with other tools such as sickle (maggāl or ḥermēš) for harvesting, threshing sledge (môrag) or wheel-thresher (ʾôpan ʿăgālâ), and winnowing fork (mizreh) and sieves (kĕḇārâ and nāpâ). Tilling the soil in the orchards and gardens was done with a hoe (maʿdēr) and another digging implement (ʾēṯ). A tool that was developed especially for work in the vineyard was a pruning knife (mazmērâ), which was used also for harvesting grapes (zāmîr).

Good yield was assured by restoration of soil fertility and by guarding against pests and diseases. The former employed several methods including fertilizing with animal manure (dōmen) and ashes (ʾēper and dešen), and green manuring (using legumes for the enrichment of the soil with nitrogen). All these methods were used in combination with crop rotation, which included fallowing. As for pests (locust, mice, worms) and diseases, little more could have been done under the prevalent circumstances than simply maintaining good agricultural practices. Pests and diseases were considered a punishment from Yahweh for not observing the Covenant. Thus, adhering to the terms of the Covenant was believed to prevent the infliction of pests and diseases. In the event of such an occurrence, prayer and repentance were considered to be helpful.

A good agricultural year was one which yielded an abundance of produce. The prophet Amos expresses it best: “The time is surely coming, says the Lord, when the one who plows shall overtake the one who reaps, and the treader of grapes the one who sows the seed” (Amos 9:13). To use and consume the produce, it had to be processed and stored. After its threshing and winnowing, clean grain (bar) was stored generally near the house in private storage pits and in large silos owned by the public sector (government, temple). For immediate use, dry produce was kept in wide-mouth jars. While cereals were mostly ground for flour and used for making bread, legumes were consumed as pottage or porridge (nāzîḏ). Legumes were stored mostly in storage jars. Storage jars were used also for keeping dried fruit (figs, dates, raisins), wine, and olive oil. The production of the latter two required special installations such as the yeqeḇ and gaṯ for wine-making and the olive press for making oil. The most efficient olive press in the Israelite period was the beam press. Oil was used not just as food, but also for lighting and as an element in cosmetics. Other fruit products included fresh juice, jams, and syrups.

Surplus produce was used to pay taxes, as illustrated by the Samaria Ostraca. Some of the surplus was offered as sacrifices in local shrines and in the national temples, and a certain amount was bartered in exchange for supplies. Not only private individuals were engaged in agriculture, but also royalty and the nobility, as exemplified by King Uzziah (2 Chr. 26:10).

See Herding.

Bibliography. O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel (Winona Lake, 1987).

Oded Borowski

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

AGRICULTURE

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)