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HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Although Hebrews has circulated since the 2nd century among the letters of Paul and bears the apostle’s name in the title of the KJV, the absence of the common characteristics of the Pauline letter indicates that it cannot easily be included within the Pauline correspondence. Indeed, the author and destination of Hebrews remain a mystery. Moreover, since the book lacks the common characteristics of epistles, its literary form also remains a matter of debate. Undebatable, however, is the fact that Hebrews is the work of a skilled rhetorician, who has provided the most sustained argument from OT Scripture within the NT. In a series of expositions, the author argues for the superiority of Jesus Christ and Christian experience to all OT institutions. Its placement after the Pauline letters and before the General Epistles reflects the distinctiveness of the book.

Literary Genre

Although Hebrews contains an epistolary conclusion (13:18-25), the remainder of the book has a totally different character from the Christian epistolary tradition that began with Paul. It lacks the epistolary opening, the common epistolary topics, and the argumentative structure of the Pauline Epistles. Indeed, the author refers to his message as a “word of exhortation” (13:22), a term which is used elsewhere (Acts 13:15) for a synagogue sermon. This was a rhetorical form that had developed in the Hellenistic Jewish synagogue consisting of 1) an indicative or exemplary section in the form of scripture quotations or theological points; 2) a conclusion based on the exemplary section; and 3) an exhortation to the community. Unlike the Pauline Epistles, Hebrews follows the common pattern of the word of exhortation. The epistolary conclusion is added to the homily because the author’s sermon had to be sent.

Content

The distinctive rhetorical character of Hebrews is evident in the introduction (1:1-4), which sets the tone in both content and rhetorical power for the remainder of the homily. In these poetic lines that are filled with alliteration and assonance, the author declares that God has spoken in these last days “by a son” who, as a result of his “making purification for sins” and sitting down at the right hand of the majesty on high, is now greater than the angels. With this “overture,” the author establishes the major themes of the book. He demonstrates the ultimacy of the Christian revelation in comparison with God’s previous disclosures in the OT (1:1-2), and develops the high christological claim with the rhetorical device of comparison (“greater than”; cf. 6:9; 7:7, 19, 22; 8:6; 11:16, 40; 12:24). Because of the exaltation to God’s right hand (Ps. 110:1), Christ is greater than all counterparts from the OT.

The remainder of the book is an amplification of the theme introduced in 1:1-4. Although the homily appears to be a series of expositions on various passages from Scripture, the unifying thread is the claim that is first established in the introduction: Christians possess a salvation through Jesus Christ that surpasses all objects of comparison. Through the interweaving of exposition and exhortation, the author indicates that the theological claims serve as a basis for exhortation. The claim that Christ is greater than the angels (1:5–2:18) is the basis for the exhortation to the community to pay attention to what it has heard (2:1-4). The comparison of Christ to Moses (3:1-6) and the assurance that he leads his people to the transcendent “rest” which Israel never attained (3:7–4:11) provide the basis for the exhortation to the community to enter that rest (4:11). After a brief reflection on the power of the word of God (4:12-13), the central section of this homily (4:14–10:31) is a comparison of the high priesthood of Christ with the high priesthood of Aaron derived from various OT passages (Ps. 110:1, 4; Lev. 16; Jer. 31:31-34). That this extended comparison of high priest, sacrifice, and sanctuary serves primarily the needs of exhortation is indicated by the exhortations which introduce (4:14-16) and conclude (10:19-31) this major section and by the extended exhortations that precede the discussion of the high priesthood of Melchizedek (5:11–6:12). A similar alternation of OT reference, comparison, and exhortation distinguishes the final section of Hebrews, which begins in 10:32. The extended depiction of examples of faithfulness among OT heroes (ch. 11) is both introduced (10:32-39) and followed (12:1-11) by the exhortation to the community to endure faithfully in the midst of hardship. Similarly, the author introduces the climactic comparison of the Sinai theophany and the Christian experience of Mt. Zion (12:18-29) with the exhortation for faithfulness (12:12-17). The final challenge for the community to go “outside the camp” (13:13) and to “offer a sacrifice of praise” (v. 15) rests on the comparison of the death of Christ “outside the city gate” (v. 12) with the levitical sacrifices (vv. 10-12).

In each comparison the author interprets the OT in order to show the superiority of Christian experience. OT institutions — angels (1:5-13), the high priesthood of Aaron (5:1-10; 7:11-28), the tabernacle (8:1-6), the sacrifices (9:1-28), and the Sinai theophany (12:18-25) — fail in comparison to Christ because they belong to the transitory world. Because Christ has sat down at the right hand of God (1:3; 8:1; 10:12), he is eternal. Hence Christians have not approached “what may be touched” (12:18) or “seen” (11:1), and the sacrifice of Christ was performed in a sanctuary “not made with hands” (9:11).

Structure

The interweaving of exposition and exhortation in Hebrews is the key element in determining the structure of this homily.

I. The Revelation of the Word in the Son (1:1–4:13)

A. The Son greater than angels (1:1–2:18)

B. Exhortation to hear the voice of the Son (3:1–4:13)

II. Christ the great high priest (4:14–10:31)

A. Exhortation to hold fast the confession (4:14-16)

B. Introduction of Christ the high priest (5:1-10)

C. Exhortation to be faithful and obtain the promises (5:11–6:20)

D. Christ the great high priest (7:1–10:18)

E. Exhortation to hold fast the confession (10:19-31)

III. Call to faithful obedience (10:32–13:25)

A. Exhortation to be faithful
(10:32–12:11)

B. Sinai and Zion (12:12-29)

C. Concluding exhortations to
faithfulness (13:1-25)

Authorship

Although Hebrews has consistently been attributed to Paul since antiquity, the internal evidence of the book precludes authorship by the apostle. Unlike Pauline Epistles, Hebrews is anonymous. The fact that the language and style of Hebrews is far superior to that of the Pauline correspondence is further evidence that the author of Hebrews was not Paul. Although numerous candidates for authorship have been suggested — e.g., Barnabas, Apollos, Silvanus, Priscilla — the book does not supply enough information about the identity of the author to make such speculation useful. We know from internal evidence only that Hebrews is written by a skilled rhetorician of the second Christian generation (2:3).

Although the writer is anonymous, he is known to the original readers. His request that the community pray for his reunion with them (13:18-19) and his expressed desire to return to them with Timothy after the latter is released (13:23) provide further information about the author’s relationship to his readers. The reference to Timothy probably indicates that the author belongs to a Pauline circle. Thus the early attribution of Hebrews to Paul may suggest that ancient readers were aware of an association between the book and Paul.

Intended Audience

The identity of the original readers is as obscure as the identity of the author. The title, “To the Hebrews,” is a later conjecture based on the book’s consistent appeal to the OT as the basis for the author’s argument. Although this conjecture is plausible, it is by no means certain, for the book contains no direct statement that the readers are Jewish. Moreover, detailed arguments from the OT appear in books that are addressed to primarily gentile audiences in such Pauline letters as Galatians and 1 Corinthians.

The only direct indication of the location of the readers is the ambiguous statement in 13:24, “Those from Italy send you their greetings,” which can be interpreted as a reference either to the location of the author or the readers. The phrase “from Italy” is used elsewhere (Acts 18:2) for Aquila and Priscilla, who have recently come “from Italy” and are now living in Corinth. This parallel suggests, therefore, that the author of Hebrews writes from a location in which he has met expatriates “from Italy” who send greetings to their home city. As in Acts 18:2, Italy is the equivalent of Rome. A Roman destination for Hebrews may also be suggested by the fact that the book is first quoted in 1 Clement, which was written from Rome at the end of the 1st century. A Roman destination for Hebrews is thus plausible but far from certain.

The author provides abundant evidence of the circumstances of his readers. Like the author, they belong to the second generation (2:3). Indeed, the distinction between the “earlier days” (10:32) of the Church’s infancy and the present time (5:12) is the basic factor which lies behind the author’s description of the readers’ situation, for the author consistently insists that the community was exemplary in its Christian practice in the earlier days, but now faces a situation of crisis. In the earlier days the readers had demonstrated work and love in serving the saints (6:10), and had endured a “hard struggle with sufferings,” including public abuse, compassion on prisoners, and the confiscation of their property (10:32-34). The author describes the present crisis as one of “drifting away” (2:1), falling away (3:12), and of committing apostasy. The nature of this apostasy may be seen in the author’s description of the readers’ condition. They are “dull in understanding” (5:12), and some are abandoning the assembly (10:25). They have “drooping hands and weak knees” (12:12). Hence the author’s major concern throughout this work is to ensure that they maintain their endurance until the end (cf. 3:14). The author’s frequent description of the condition of the readers indicates that the crisis to which Hebrews is addressed is not, despite numerous claims to the contrary, the problem of the readers’ temptation to return to Judaism. Nor is the book written to counter a particular heresy. The author of Hebrews writes to encourage his community to remain faithful in the context of the lethargy and discouragement that threaten its existence.

Bibliography. H. W. Attridge, The Epistle to the Hebrews. Herm (Philadelphia, 1989); W. L. Lane, Hebrews, 2 vols. WBC 47-48 (Waco, 1991); J. W. Thompson, The Beginnings of Christian Philosophy. CBQMS 13 (Washington, 1982).

James W. Thompson

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)