Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

PALESTINE, LAND OF

Foothills of “the hill country of Ephraim” in Samaria (Werner Braun)

Nahal Zin, boundary between the north and central Negeb (Phoenix Data Systems, Neal and Joel Bierling)

In describing Palestine from a geographical point of view, the physical facts as defined by modern research must be combined with the ancient nomenclature of the Bible and other ancient sources. Caution must be exercised in using ancient terms which have acquired modern connotations different from their original meaning.

Names and Definition

The Bible never uses the term “Promised Land,” but that concept is behind passages such as Gen. 15:18-21. The territory encompassed there is the modern “Levant,” used here to mean the eastern Mediterranean littoral. It extends from the Euphrates, “The Great River,” to “the River of Egypt,” the eastern branch of the Nile which passed in antiquity along the Sinai-Egyptian border (not to be confused with the Brook of Egypt). To the east and south the Levant is bordered by deserts.

In OT times the area from the modern Lebanese border with north Syria down to the Wadi el-{Arîsh was known as Canaan. Its boundary descriptions (Num. 34:1-2; Josh. 13:4; Ezek. 47:15-20) are quite explicit; they encompass the modern state of Lebanon, the area around Damascus, and western Palestine. Transjordan was excluded. Canaan extended from the Eleutheros (modern Nahr el-Kebîr) to Wadi el-{Arîsh. It differed, therefore, from the land of promise in Gen. 15 and also from the “land of Israel” as settled by the Israelite tribes.

The territory originally occupied by the Israelite tribes was “all Israel from Dan to Beer-sheba” (1 Sam. 3:20; 2 Sam. 17:11; cf. 1 Kgs. 4:25[MT 5:5], “Judah and Israel”). When Transjordan is expressly included it is “from Dan to Beer-sheba, including the land of Gilead” (Judg. 20:1).

In Roman times Judea came to be applied not only to ancient Judah but to the whole country (Strabo Geog. 16.2.34; Ptolemy Geog. 5.16.1); Herod was king of Judea. After the Bar Kokhba Revolt (a.d. 135), Hadrian changed the name to Syria Palaestina, a term which had originally applied only to Philistia (Herodotus Hist. 7.89). By the 4th century it was called simply Palaestina.

Physical Description

The terrain is clearly depicted as a land of brooks of water, of fountains and springs and valleys, which “drinks water by the rain from heaven” (Deut. 11:11). Unlike the great nations of Mesopotamia with its Tigris and Euphrates and Egypt with its Nile, Palestine had no such natural water source that could be used for irrigation. The two main types of topographical formations, hills and valleys, are stressed time and again. Due to the great Jordan depression, general north-south orientation is given to the entire landscape with coastal and mountain zones running parallel. But regional faulting has led to further divisions of these north-south bands into east-west units that influenced the distribution of human settlement throughout the ages and often find echo in the administrative divisions of the country. From earliest times the communal settlements tended to group themselves around the water sources at the edge of the plains. They thus insured for themselves a source of water near cultivable land. The country’s lines of communication also tended to follow the valleys and less difficult mountain passes often formed by the exposure of soft Senonian chalk between the strata of Cenomanian and Eocene limestones.

The terrain will be briefly described from north to south and west to east. Stress is upon the biblical terminology as applied in OT times, though later terms (esp. Greco-Roman) and even some modern names are unavoidable.

Coastal Plain

Phoenicia. The northern coast, that of modern Lebanon, is characterized by the closeness of the mountains to the shore. The major harbors of the east Mediterranean were the Phoenician cities Byblos, Beirut, Sidon, and especially the islands, Tyre and Arvad. Cultivable land is scarce on the plain, but the mountains of the hinterland provided the timber and other products so famous in antiquity. The northern coastal zone is called Phoenicia in Greco-Roman times but has no name in the OT except Canaan or simply Sidon. The population was mainly engaged in maritime activities. The promontory of Ras en-Naqûra/Rosh ha-Niqra, called Ladder of Tyre in Crusader times, sets off the plain to the south of it from the rest of Phoenicia. On the south it is bounded by the Carmel.

Mt. Carmel is the mass of Cenomanian limestone running northwest-southeast from its headland to Wadi el-Milḥ/Naḥal Yoqneʿam. It forms a wedge-shaped barrier that divides the coastal plain; within its ridges were plentiful orchards and vineyards, making it a symbol of fertility (Isa. 33:9; Amos 1:2; Nah. 1:4). The Carmel formed its watershed along the northeast ridge; the main streams flow westward through steep ravines, the caves of which gave shelter to prehistoric humans.

The coastal zone from the Carmel headland south to the Crocodile River (Naḥal Tanninim) was evidently called Naphoth-(dor). It is bounded by ridges of sandstone along the shore which shelter a fertile plain at the foot of the Carmel.

Sharon Plain. From Naphoth-dor to Joppa the Sharon (Eusebius Onom. 162.5-6) consists of alluvial soil from the Samaria hills on the east, a band of red Mouseterian sand in the middle, and then ridges of sandstone (Kurkar) which blocked the passage of the several streams crossing the plain from east to west. This caused swamps and scrub forests to develop behind the sandstone ridges. The Wadi {Auja (modern Yarkon) cuts across the southern third of the plain, forming an additional barrier. Thus, the ancient towns grew up along the eastern side of the Sharon where the ground was higher, more fertile, and rich in water sources. In OT times the plain was mostly used for pasturage. From Aphek north to Gath-padalla ran a key segment of the great coastal trunk route connecting Egypt with Syria and Mesopotamia.

At Aphek the waters of the Yarkon rise and flow in a tortuous course to the sea N of Joppa. The ancient route led eastward around Aphek because of this barrier.

According to the Phoenician inscription of Ešmunʿazer (l. 19) the hinterland of Joppa was also included in “the mighty grain lands in the territory of Sharon” (cf. Eusebius Onom. 162.5-6). The southern border of the Sharon must be placed at the valley of Sorek (Wadi eṣ-Òarar/Naḥal Sorek), which was also the southern border of the Danite inheritance. Another wadi (Wadi Muṣrarah; modern Naḥal Ayalon) runs from the valley of Aijalon diagonally across the plain toward Joppa.

Philistia. From the border of Joppa southward was the coast occupied by the Canaanites. While Joppa and Ashkelon stood right on the shore, along with Yavneh-yam, two other major towns, Ashdod and Gaza, were located inland behind the sand dunes. They had access to the sea by means of small harbor settlements on the coast, usually at the mouth of a wadi.

The plain of Philistia is much wider in the south, 25 km. (15 mi.), and narrows progressively toward the north to ca. 17 km. (10 mi.). Just behind the sands there is a sort of topographic corridor, somewhat troughlike, which gradually rises toward the Shephelah foothills to the east.

Along the sand dunes, especially around Gaza, were extensive vineyards. The inland soils are excellent for grain crops and olive orchards. The area supported a dense human population from earliest antiquity.

The great trunk route from Egypt across northern Sinai and northwards to Damascus and the Phoenician coast followed the “trough” east of the line of dunes. After Jabneel it turned northeast toward Aphek.

Several wadis cut across the Philistine plain, some of them forced to turn northwards in order to find passage through the dunes.

The commercial route from Egypt to Mesopotamia was not the only source of caravan trade. The seaports of Philistia were the destination of the caravans coming from Arabia across the Negeb to the Mediterranean. This heavy commercial traffic led to the frequent alliances between the Philistine cities and the Edomites and Arabs.

Central Range

Lebanon. The mountains of Lebanon, a range ca. 160 km. (100 mi.) long, are the most prominent orographic features of the Levant. They were the source of timber for both Egypt and Mesopotamia. The southern extension of this range, beyond the Liṭani River, forms the western highlands of Palestine, which consist of several distinct units. The foothills behind the coastal plain of Tyre and of Acco were called Shephelah (“lowlands”).

Galilee. The northernmost district, Galilee, is divided into Upper and Lower (Josephus BJ 3.3.1; cf. the order of towns in Josh. 19:35-38). The plateau in the north is lower to the northwest and slopes upwards toward the south. It was an area of Canaanite cities. The southern part of Upper Galilee is a massif (Jebel Jarmuq, now wrongly called Mt. Meiron), largely uninhabited until the Israelite period. It looks down on the valley of Beth-kerem which separates it from Lower Galilee.

Lower Galilee consists of a series of ridges running east-west, the most important being Mt. Atzmon and the Nazareth hills. In between these ridges were some latitudinal valleys, especially that of Beth-netopha/Sahl el-Baṭṭôf, the plain of Asochis in Greco-Roman sources. The watershed between east and west is east of the center line of Galilee; to the east the ridges slope steeply down to the Huleh Valley and the Sea of Galilee; to the west they point long slender fingers down to the coastal plain. There is considerable basalt on the east, while the west is limestone.

Jezreel. This triangular depression between the hills of Lower Galilee and Samaria was the main thoroughfare between the coast and the Jordan Valley. Its name in Greek and Latin sources is Esdraelon. On its eastern edge stood Mt. Tabor and the Hill of Moreh, and to the east of these two hills is a basalt plateau comprising the inheritance of Issachar. The ʿEn-harod Valley led from Jezreel down to Beth-shean. The Jezreel Valley (also called Esdraelon) was famous for its grain production. Megiddo stood near the mouth of the main thoroughfare from Egypt as it enters the valley.

The low-lying plateau behind Megiddo and Jokneam (Bilâd er-Rûhah/Ramat Menashe) separates the valley of Jezreel from the Sharon Plain and connects the Carmel range with the mountains of Samaria. The southeastern point of the Jezreel, partly encircled by the arm of Mt. Gilboa, is bounded by a low ridge leading up the valley of Dothan, which provided another easy passage to the Sharon.

Samaria. The mountains of Samaria are called Mt. Shechem in an Egyptian source from the Canaanite period (Papyrus Anastasi I). Opinions are divided as to whether it could all be called Mt. Ephraim. A central feature is the Shechem Valley between Mt. Gerizim on the south and Mt. Ebal on the north. Samaria had several valleys leading out to the west, providing easy access to the mountain area. The Dothan Valley and the Shechem Valley in the north and east respectively are matched by the Wadi Farʿah, a dramatic gash in the mountains running down to the Jordan Valley at Adam(ah). Southwest from the Shechem Valley, via the valley of Michmethath, ran the valley of Kanah, the principal boundary between Manasseh and Ephraim.

The foothills slope naturally down to the west in a gentle continuity. The eastern side is largely steppe, while the west is good for vineyards, orchards, and grain, the latter especially in the valleys.

The hill country of Ephraim and Benjamin is a continuity. One major subdivision, the district occupied by the people of Gibeon (Josh. 9:3), forms a topographic saddle between Mt. Ephraim and Mt. Judah and includes the ridge of Nebī Samwîl and the plain through which passes the road to Beth-horon. This latter joins the “highway” (Judg. 21:19) that follows the watershed from Shechem past Lebonah to Ramah in Benjamin, going west of Jerusalem to Bethlehem, Halhul, Hebron, and finally to Beer-sheba.

Jerusalem. In the vicinity of Jerusalem are two ravines, the Wadi Beit µanînah and the valley of Rephaim, which bisect the mountain chain from the watershed west. They are steep and dangerous, and anyone approaching from the west was easily threatened by ambushes. Accordingly, the route through Gibeon to Beth-horon was the favorite link between Jerusalem and the coast. Jerusalem is situated, therefore, at a point where three major approaches connect the shore with the central range. To the east was the Jericho road, facilitating passage to the Jordan Valley and beyond. The ridge W of Jerusalem above the valley of Hinnom was a link between Mt. Ephraim to the north and Mt. Judah to the south.

Mt. Judah. The heart of Cisjordan is the high watershed zone known as Mt. Judah or the hill country of Judah. Comprised of limestone and dolomite strata with layers of chalk and marl, the hill country forms a massive block incised from the west by some deep ravines and bordered on that side by a trough of Senonian chalk. To the east lies the wilderness of Judah.

The highest point in the Judean hills is at µalḥûl (ca. 1000 m. [3300 ft.]). The central plateau is dominated by Hebron, situated in a depression, the meeting place of deep valleys running westward. The southern district was the Negeb of Caleb, the principal town being Debir.

Shephelah. The “Lowland” or Shephelah is a separate unit of later limestone on the western flank of the Judean hills, separated from it by a trough valley of soft chalk running north-south. The rounded hills of the Shephelah are fairly uniform in height, ca. 200 m. (1200 ft.) above sea level. The zone reaches to the area around Gezer in the north and the southern end trails off toward Beer-sheba. Several wadis bisect the Shephelah from east to west, the most prominent being the valley of Ajalon, the Sorek, the vale of Elah, and the valley of Zephatha. The Shephelah was divided into three districts from north to south, following the pattern of the wadis.

Wilderness of Judah. This zone had few towns because it was the chalky waste in the rain shadow to the east of the Judean watershed. The infertile soil and lack of water left the area unsuitable for cultivation except with special care for water collection; even then the territory remained a steppe land, a pastoral zone for the flocks of the hill country settlements. Actually, there are several “wildernesses,” e.g., the wilderness of Tekoa, Ziph, and Maʿon. The areas above the cliffs bordering on the Dead Sea were even more wild and could be accurately called “wasteland.”

Negeb. To the south of the hill country was a zone often translated “South” or “extreme south.” The biblical Negeb was mainly the valley E of Beer-sheba and the rolling plain encircled by the brook Besor to the west. This Negeb of Judah was in fact inhabited by various satellite tribes or ethnic groups (e.g., Simeon, the Kenites, the Jerahmeelites, and the Cherethites).

The local administrative center was at Beer-sheba during the United Monarchy. It is beside the junction of the Hebron wadi from the hill country and the Beer-sheba wadi from the east; after they join they form the Besor, which winds its way west and northwest to empty into the sea S of Gaza.

The Negeb should not be thought of as wilderness, though it is a zone of very marginal rainfall. Its main significance was as a link in the caravan route from the Arabah to the Philistine seacoast. It was to the kingdom of Judah what the Jezreel Valley was to the northern kingdom of Israel; control of the Negeb was a sign of Judean strength and prosperity; loss of the Negeb with incursions from the Philistines and the Edomites or the Arabs meant a time of weakness and lack of political power.

Just S of the Negeb was a steppe land called the wilderness of Beer-sheba, which passed the way of Shur (leading to Egypt). Kadesh was in another zone, the wilderness of Zin, which bordered on the wilderness of Paran (the Sinai expanse). The highlands S of the Negeb were considered by the author of Chronicles to be Mt. Seir (1 Chr. 4:42; probably also 2 Chr. 20:10).

The modern term “Negev” encompasses all the area from Beer-sheba to Elath, but this derives from a misconception of the biblical term.

“Rift” Valley

Determining the north-south orientation of the main physical feature of the entire land is the Great Rift running the length of the Levant and extending down into Africa.

Beqaʿ. In the north the Rift is known as the Beqaʿ “Valley” (biblical “valley of Lebanon”), the rich plain between the mountains of Lebanon and the Hermon-Sirion (Anti-Lebanons). At its watershed was Lebo-hamath; northwards it is drained by the Orontes, southwards by the Liṭani. The valley at the foot of Hermon was called valley or land of Mizpeh.

Mt. Hermon. This is the highest mountain in the land of Israel (2814 m. [9166 ft.]). Its snows furnish most of the water for the Jordan, of which there are four sources, two from the ʿAyûn Valley and two from Hermon.

Hûleh Valley. The principal sources for the Jordan are the waters by Tell el-Qadi (Tel Dan) and the spring at Banias (Paneas). They join in the Hûleh Valley (Josephus “Ulatha”) and formed the shallow Lake Hûleh. This latter has generally been taken to be the waters of Merom, but the site of Merom must be located in the plateau above, near Marûn er-Ras. The lake was surrounded by swamps and served as a filter cleansing the waters of the Jordan before they flowed down to the Sea of Galilee.

From the north, one entered the Hûleh via the pass beside Abel-beth-maacah or that coming down past Dan. The major town in the valley was Hazor, the largest urban center of the Canaanite period.

Between the swampy basin in the northern part of the valley and the Sea of Galilee is a massive dyke of ancient basalt. The Jordan cuts its way through this lava deposit in a narrow gorge on the eastern side of the valley.

Sea of Galilee. The river comes out of the gorge, crosses a small alluvial plain, and enters the lake of Chinnereth, or the Sea of Galilee. This is a heart-shaped body of water, ca. 200 m. (600 ft.) below sea level. It is 18 km. long × 12 km. across (ca. 12 × 7 mi.) and is shut in by basalt hills on nearly all sides. The waters are generally fresh, though highly mineral springs once fed the northwestern shore. Hot springs break forth along the western side, leaving a small arm of land isolated to the east.

Jordan River. The Jordan flows in a tortuous course through the deep Rift Valley down to the Dead Sea. In a straight line it covers ca. 105 km. (65 mi.) and descends from 200 m. (600 ft.) below sea level to nearly 400 m. (1200 ft.) below. The first part of its course is through steep clay banks until it reaches the confluence of the Jabbok from the east and the Wadi Farʿah on the west. At this point, denoted by the town of Adam (modern ed-Damiyah), the riverbed cut through a more open plain.

The valley was part of the biblical Arabah and served as the boundary of Canaan. Along the eastern edge of the valley were rich water sources that encouraged the rise of towns in the Canaanite period (e.g., Pella, Succoth), while the western side was more arid except for the Beth-shean Valley and the Jericho region, which was a tropical paradise (Josephus BJ 4.8.3).

Dead Sea. The biblical Sea of Salt or Sea of the Arabah (Asphalitis, Josephus Ant. 1.9.1) was called the Dead Sea by Greco-Roman writers in the latter half of the 2nd century a.d. It formerly received ca. 6 million tons of water every 24 hours from the Jordan. On the east it is bordered by steep cliffs of Moab with only the “Tongue” (Arab. Lisan), a boot-shaped peninsula projecting across its width. South of the Lisan it is a shallow basin, but on the northeastern side it is over 400 m. (1200 ft.) deep. At times one could cross dryshod from the Lisan to the western shore. The water of the Dead Sea is of such a high mineral content as to be poisonous to normal life forms. The arid valley S of the Dead Sea was called the valley of Salt.

Southern Arabah. The name Arabah was preserved in Arabic only with relation to the valley S of the Dead Sea. The valley floor rises gradually southward to ca. 200 m. (600 ft.) above sea level before sloping down again on the gulf of Elath. It is a desert area with heavy alluvial sands in the middle and salty soils just S of the Dead Sea. The red cliffs of Mt. Seir rise to the east, and the yellow limestone of the Cisjordan desert highlands stand on the west. The two main oases are ʿAin µuṣb in the north and ʿAin Ghaḍyân in the south. The Arabah was a natural border between Israel and Edom but was also a line of communication with south Arabia, by land and also by sea. As such it was a contested zone between the neighboring states.

Reed Sea. The Gulf of Elath, the eastern arm of the Red Sea, is called the “Reed Sea,” often rendered “Red Sea” (1 Kgs. 9:26), following Greek usage (Herodotus Hist. 11.8).

Transjordan

In Transjordan the history of biblical times touches mainly on those districts bordering on the deep valley of the rift; they were bounded on the east by the wastes of the Arabian desert. The geopolitical importance of Transjordan was due to the King’s Highway, the route from Damascus to Elath which also led to Midian and then to south Arabia.

Bashan. The northern districts, often disputed with Aram-Damascus, were part of the land of Apum/Upe in the Canaanite period. The biblical name for the whole district was Bashan, which included various territories including the “whole region of Argob,” with its 60 walled cities. In Greco-Roman times it was divided into Gaulanitis (named after the town Golan) along the western edge of the plateau and east to the Nahr Allân; Batanea (from the Aramaic form of Bashan), the zone E of the same Allan Valley; and Auranitis (from OT Hauran), mainly the mountain called Jebel ed-Druze, the highest peak of which is Jebel µaurân. The lava region NW of the Hauran mountains was called Trachonitis (Gk. “rough country”), modern el-Leja.

The entire area was included in Canaan and contained the Aramean district of Geshur (just E of Chinnereth). Its southern border was the Yarmuk Valley. The Yarmuk is the largest river in Transjordan, and flows through a steep gorge to join the Jordan below the Sea of Galilee. Its waters originate in stream beds far to the east, especially from the Hauran region. The Yarmuk Valley thus separated Bashan/Golan from Gilead.

Gilead. Central Transjordan (biblical Gilead) is a mountainous area of Cenomanian limestone like the hills of Ephraim and Judah. It is not reckoned as part of Canaan, but was occupied by the tribe of Gad as well as Bashan. Thus, the division of the area into two halves by the Jabbok was recognized in the Israelite settlement.

The mountains reach over 900 m. (3000 ft.), the highest point being at ʿAjlûn. The western slopes and the hills take up most of the area; to the east is a narrow tableland bordering on the desert. There is a double watershed, one near the west from whence steep ravines flow into the Jordan Valley; the easterly flowing streams are largely collected by the course of the Jabbok, which runs north along the eastern plateau before turning west to bisect the entire uplifted dome reaching the valley by Mahanaim and Succoth.

Ammon. Rabbath-ammon, the center of Ammonite territory, is located on the east at the head of another series of valleys separating Gilead from the tableland of Moab. Ammon is structurally a basin 32 × 16 km. (20 × 10 mi.) from northeast to southwest.

Moab. The tableland, the northern half of the territory claimed by the Moabites (disputed by Israel), consists of a plain behind the ridges sloping down to the Dead Sea (from Mt. Nebo-Pisgah). The entire plateau E of the Dead Sea is divided into two halves by the Arnon Valley (Wadi el-Môjib), which formed the border between Israel and Moab proper. The term mîšôr, “tableland,” applies only to this northern plain, while the area between the Arnon and the Zered (Wadi el-µesā) was considered as Moab’s original home since the tableland had belonged to the Amorites.

Edom. Southern Transjordan was known as Mt. Seir or Edom. The name may have designated also the high country S of the Negeb, but during the Monarchy the red sandstone mountains S of the Zered are meant. Some of the peaks reach as high as 1736 m. (5704 ft.). The territory of Edom proper, though 120 km. (75 mi.) long, is only about 20 km. (12-13 mi.) wide. The embayment behind Feinân (biblical Punon) divides the area into two halves. The OT capital was Sela (Arab. Silaʿ), while the Nabatean and Roman capital moved to Rekem (Petra in Greek sources). The people of Edom were in constant rivalry with Judah for control of the Arabah S of the Dead Sea, and Elath/Ezion-geber changed hands several times. To the south of Edom was the territory of Midian and to the east was Kedar, whose king gained control of the entire area across to Gaza and Egypt during the Persian period.

Climate

Although rabbinic tradition knows four seasons, the OT recognizes only two: “seedtime and harvest,” winter and summer. The year is divided into two halves, one beginning with Nisan, the first month, and another with Tishri, the seventh. The OT sacred festivals fall in the seven-month period embracing Passover (in Nisan) and Tabernacles (in Tishri). During the winter, the main agricultural activities are devoted to grain crops expected in the spring and summer; in the summer the work is on vines and orchards, for the summer fruits.

The weather pattern in winter consists of low pressure systems that arrive from the west and northwest. Those from northern Italy pass along the Adriatic to Greece and the Aegean, reaching Syria. The others come from southern Italy to the central Mediterranean and across to Palestine. The rains of a given year usually come in three phases: the “rain,” “early rain,” and “latter rain.” The “early rain,” a light sprinkling to soften the hard earth and facilitate plowing, may come in September but usually arrives sometime in October. The principal phase of the rain, ca. 75 percent, falls between December and February. The main sowing takes place in November through December, and late sowing usually is done during a break in the rains in January. By March the grass is high enough to cut for fodder, and in April the “latter rain” is needed as a final dose to swell the grain. But if the rain in April/May is too heavy, it can bring disaster.

The rains are deposited more intensively on the mountain ranges of Judah, Ephraim, and Galilee. There is a difference of several degrees in temperature during the winter between Jerusalem and the seacoast, the latter being the milder. Beyond the watershed in Ephraim and Judah there is a rain shadow, since most of the precipitation has fallen on the hills; thus the dry chalk wastes of the Judean wilderness have little chance of getting moisture. However, the same winds that brought the rains from the west descend again to the humid depression of the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea, where they pick up more moisture to be deposited in the ranges of Gilead and Moab. In a drought year for western Palestine, the dry winds and high temperatures cause higher evaporation in the Rift Valley so that Transjordan actually may have a slightly higher precipitation for a change.

The snows of Mt. Hermon provide the principal water source for the Jordan. Most of the winter rainwater is absorbed by the limestone mountains of Cisjordan and descends to a deep underground water table. This was not utilized in antiquity, but some of the water did break through to the surface in the form of springs and wells generally located along the edge of the plains at the foot of the hill ranges.

Bibliography. Y. Aharoni, The Land of the Bible, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1979), 21-42; D. Baly, The Geography of the Bible, rev. ed. (New York, 1974); A. Horowitz, The Quaternary of Israel (New York, 1979), 11-43; Y. Karmon, Israel, a Regional Geography (London, 1971); A. F. Rainey, review of D. Baly, The Geography of the Bible, 2nd ed. JBL 94 (1976): 634-35.

Anson F. Rainey